Checkpoint 6 · Reading: grammar

Phrases and Clauses

Noun phrases, expanded noun phrases, prepositional phrases and fronted adverbials, main and subordinate clauses, and relative clauses: how to spot them, how Checkpoint asks about them, how to use them in your writing, with practice and answers.

British & IGCSE › Checkpoint 6 English (Cambridge Primary 0058)

Words do not work alone. They join together in groups. Some groups are phrases and some are clauses. Knowing the difference helps you in two ways. In the reading paper, Checkpoint asks you to find the main clause of a sentence, to spot a relative clause, or to explain why a sentence starts with a phrase. In your writing, phrases and clauses are the tools you use to build longer, more interesting sentences, which earn Grammar and punctuation marks.

The one rule to remember

A clause has a subject and a verb (someone or something doing something). A phrase does not have both. *the old wooden boat* = phrase (no verb). *the boat sank* = clause (subject *the boat* + verb *sank*).

1. Phrase or clause?

Group of words	Subject + verb?	Phrase or clause?
in the dark forest	no verb	phrase
a tiny, frightened kitten	no verb	phrase
the kitten cried	kitten + cried	clause
after the long journey	no verb	phrase
after we finished the long journey	we + finished	clause
to win the cup	no subject (an infinitive)	phrase
because the bus was late	bus + was	clause

Look at *after the long journey* and *after we finished the long journey*. The same first word, but the second one has a subject and a verb, so it is a clause.

2. Noun phrases

A noun phrase is a group of words built around one main noun (the "head" noun). The other words tell us more about that noun. The whole group works like one noun in the sentence.

*the cat* (determiner + noun)
*the grey cat* (determiner + adjective + noun)
*The invaluable advice came from my grandmother.* Here the whole noun phrase is the subject of the sentence.

To find the head noun, ask: what is the phrase really about? In *the tall man in the blue coat*, it is about the man.

3. Expanded noun phrases

An expanded noun phrase is a noun phrase with extra describing words added before and/or after the noun. Writers use them to give the reader a clear picture in very few words. They are one of the best tools in your own writing, especially in stories and descriptions.

How to expand	Example
Start with a noun	a castle
Add adjectives before it	a dark, crumbling castle
Add a prepositional phrase after it	a dark, crumbling castle on the edge of the cliff
Or add a relative clause after it	a dark, crumbling castle that nobody had visited for years

Before the noun	Head noun	After the noun
the old, rusty	key	under the doormat
a small, shy	girl	with a red umbrella
the delicious	smell	of fresh bread
three noisy	seagulls	on the harbour wall

Do not overdo it

Two adjectives are usually enough: *the cold, grey sea* is strong, but *the cold, grey, wet, huge, dark, noisy sea* is too much. Put a comma between two adjectives of the same kind (*cold, grey*). Choose adjectives that add new information or a feeling.

Why does a writer use an expanded noun phrase? Possible answers: to give a detailed, clear picture in the reader's mind, to describe the setting or character precisely, to create a mood (for example *the silent, empty corridor* creates a scary mood), or to give a lot of information in a short space (useful in information texts).

4. Prepositional phrases

A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun: *under the bed*, *after lunch*, *with great care*, *across the busy road*. It has no verb, so it is a phrase.

Job	It tells us about…	Example
Like an adjective (adjectival)	a noun: which one?	The book on the shelf is mine. (which book?)
Like an adverb (adverbial)	a verb: where, when, how?	She left the room in a hurry. (how?) We met at the station. (where?) The film starts after dinner. (when?)

Writers use prepositional phrases to tell the reader where, when and how things happen, which makes the description precise.

5. Adverbials and fronted adverbials

An adverbial is a word, phrase or clause that does the job of an adverb: it tells us when, where, how, how often or why something happens.

one word (an adverb): *Suddenly*, *Yesterday*, *Carefully*
a phrase: *In the morning*, *Without a sound*, *Across the field*, *A few minutes later*
a clause: *As soon as the bell rang*, *When the storm ended*

A fronted adverbial is an adverbial that has been moved to the front of the sentence, before the subject and verb. It is usually followed by a comma.

Normal order	With a fronted adverbial
The crowd cheered at the end of the race.	At the end of the race, the crowd cheered.
A strange light appeared without any warning.	Without any warning, a strange light appeared.
We set off for the mountains early the next morning.	Early the next morning, we set off for the mountains.
The owl watched silently.	Silently, the owl watched.

Why does a writer use a fronted adverbial? Possible answers:

to tell the reader when or where the action happens before it happens, so the scene is set first.
to link to the paragraph before and move the story on in time (*Later that day, … / The next morning, …*).
to build suspense: the reader waits to find out what happens (*Slowly, very slowly, the door …*).
to make the manner stand out (*Without a sound,* puts the focus on the silence).
to vary sentence openings, so the writing is not always *He… She… They…*, which makes it more interesting to read.

Fronted adverbials in your own writing

In a story, start three or four sentences with a fronted adverbial of a different kind: one of time (*Just before sunset,*), one of place (*Beneath the old bridge,*), one of manner (*Without a word,*). It varies your openings, links your paragraphs and shows the examiner you control sentence structure.

6. Infinitive phrases

An infinitive phrase starts with an infinitive (to + verb) and includes the words that go with it: *to finish the project*, *to see the pyramids*, *to win the final match*.

As the subject: *To swim across the lake was her dream.*
To show purpose (why): *He trained every day to win the final match.*

7. Clauses: main and subordinate

A clause has a subject and a verb. There are two kinds.

	Main clause	Subordinate clause
Other name	independent clause	dependent clause
Can it stand alone as a sentence?	Yes. It makes complete sense.	No. It needs a main clause to make sense.
How it often starts	with the subject: We…, The dog…	with a subordinating conjunction (because, when, although, if…) or a relative pronoun (who, which, that…)
Example	we stayed indoors	because it was raining

Put them together and you get a complex sentence: *We stayed indoors because it was raining.* The main clause is *We stayed indoors*; the subordinate clause is *because it was raining*.

Subordinating conjunctions that start subordinate clauses:

Job	Conjunctions	Example
Time	when, while, as, after, before, until, since, as soon as, whenever	As soon as the bell rang, everyone ran outside.
Reason	because, as, since	I took a coat because it looked cold.
Condition	if, unless	If you hurry, you will catch the bus.
Contrast	although, even though, while, whereas	Although she was tired, she kept running.
Purpose	so that	He whispered so that nobody would hear.

The subordinate clause can move. It can come after the main clause or before it. When it comes first, put a comma after it.

*We went home when the film ended.*
*When the film ended, we went home.*

How to find the main clause in four steps

Find all the verbs in the sentence.
Find the words that start subordinate clauses (because, when, although, if, who, which, that…). Cover each subordinate clause with your finger.
What is left should make complete sense on its own. That is the main clause.
Copy it exactly, every word, and no extra words.

Worked example: *Although the path was steep, the hikers who had set off at dawn reached the top before noon.*

Cover the subordinate clause *Although the path was steep*.
Cover the relative clause *who had set off at dawn*.
*before noon* is a prepositional phrase, not a clause, so it stays as part of the main clause.
Main clause: the hikers reached the top before noon. It makes complete sense alone.

Traps when finding the main clause

The main clause is not always first. In *When the rain stopped, the children went outside*, the main clause is *the children went outside*.
A relative clause can sit in the middle of the main clause: *The dog that lives next door barks all night.* Main clause = *The dog barks all night*.
A clause beginning with *because, when, if, although* is never the main clause.
Do not copy only part of the main clause. Check that your answer has its subject and its verb.

8. Relative clauses

A relative clause is a kind of subordinate clause that gives more information about a noun. It usually comes straight after that noun and begins with a relative pronoun (who, which, that, whose) or with where or when.

Starts with	Used for	Example
who	people	The girl who sits next to me speaks three languages.
which	things and animals	Our car, which is very old, broke down again.
that	people or things	The cake that you made was delicious.
whose	belonging	The boy whose bike was stolen went to the police.
where	places	This is the café where we first met.
when	times	I remember the day when we moved to Cairo.

Two kinds of relative clause:

Kind	What it does	Commas?	Example
Essential (defining)	tells us which one. Without it, the sentence loses its meaning	No commas	The student who won the prize is in my class. (which student? the one who won)
Extra information (non-defining)	adds extra information about a noun we already know	A pair of commas around it	My brother, who loves football, plays every evening. (we already know who my brother is)

Remember: a pair of commas around a relative clause shows extra information. If you take the words between the commas away, the sentence still makes sense: *My brother plays every evening.*

Embedded relative clause: when the relative clause sits in the middle of the main clause, we say it is embedded: *The museum, which opened last year, has a dinosaur room.*

Why does a writer use a relative clause? Possible answers: to give extra information about a person, place or thing without starting a new sentence, to tell the reader exactly which person or thing is meant, to add detail to a description, to join two short sentences into one longer, smoother sentence, or to pack more facts into an information text.

الفرق بين العبارة والجملة وكيف تجد الـ main clause

الـ phrase مجموعة كلمات بدون فاعل وفعل معًا، مثل: in the garden.
الـ clause فيها فاعل وفعل، مثل: the children played.
الـ main clause تفهم وحدها كجملة كاملة، أما الـ subordinate clause فتبدأ غالبًا بـ because / when / although / if أو who / which ولا تُفهم وحدها.
لإيجاد الـ main clause: غطِّ كل جزء يبدأ بكلمة ربط أو بـ who / which، والباقي هو الـ main clause، وانسخه كما هو بالضبط.
الـ relative clause بين فاصلتين = معلومة إضافية؛ إذا حذفتها تبقى الجملة صحيحة.

9. Using phrases and clauses in your writing

Look how one plain sentence grows into a strong one, step by step:

Step	Sentence
Simple sentence	The boy ran.
Expanded noun phrase	The small, frightened boy ran.
Prepositional phrase	The small, frightened boy ran across the empty playground.
Fronted adverbial	Without looking back, the small, frightened boy ran across the empty playground.
Subordinate clause	Without looking back, the small, frightened boy ran across the empty playground until he reached the gate.
Relative clause	Without looking back, the small, frightened boy, who had heard the strange noise first, ran across the empty playground until he reached the gate.

Do not make every sentence long

Long sentences full of phrases and clauses are powerful, but a short simple sentence straight after them has a strong effect: *…until he reached the gate. It was locked.* Mix long and short on purpose.

How Checkpoint asks about phrases and clauses

Question style (in our own words)	How to answer
Copy the main clause from this sentence.	Cover the subordinate and relative clauses; copy the rest exactly.
Underline the relative clause.	Find who/which/that/whose/where after a noun; underline to the end of the clause.
Tick the sentence that has a subordinate clause.	Look for because, when, although, if, while, until… followed by a subject and verb.
Why does the writer start the sentence with 'Deep in the forest'?	It is a fronted adverbial of place: it sets the scene before the action and creates mood or suspense.
Why does the writer use commas in this sentence?	For example: to separate the subordinate clause at the start from the main clause, or a pair of commas to show extra information in a relative clause.
Find an expanded noun phrase that describes the house.	Copy the determiner, adjectives and noun (plus any phrase after the noun) together, e.g. 'the tall, silent house'.

Practice A: phrase or clause?

beneath the wooden bridge
Show answer
Phrase (prepositional). There is no verb.
the bridge collapsed
Show answer
Clause. Subject 'the bridge' + verb 'collapsed'.
a basket of ripe mangoes
Show answer
Phrase (noun phrase). The head noun is 'basket'.
while the baby was sleeping
Show answer
Clause (subordinate). Subject 'the baby' + verb 'was sleeping', starting with 'while'.
to protect the turtles
Show answer
Phrase (infinitive phrase). No subject.
which nobody could open
Show answer
Clause (relative clause). Subject 'nobody' + verb 'could open'.

Practice B: find the main clause

When the whistle blew, the players rushed onto the pitch.
Show answer
the players rushed onto the pitch
Our neighbour, who is a doctor, helped the injured cyclist.
Show answer
Our neighbour helped the injured cyclist
We cannot go to the beach unless the wind drops.
Show answer
We cannot go to the beach
Although it was late, the shop that sells sweets was still open.
Show answer
the shop was still open
The parcel arrived after we had left for school.
Show answer
The parcel arrived
Because she practised every day, Hana played the song perfectly at the concert.
Show answer
Hana played the song perfectly at the concert

Practice C: relative clauses and expanded noun phrases

Underline the relative clause: 'The pyramids, which were built thousands of years ago, still amaze visitors.'
Show answer
which were built thousands of years ago
Join with a relative clause: 'I have a friend. Her father is a pilot.'
Show answer
I have a friend whose father is a pilot.
Join with a relative clause: 'We visited the farm. My grandfather grew up there.'
Show answer
We visited the farm where my grandfather grew up.
Is the relative clause essential or extra information? 'The pupils who finished early helped tidy the room.'
Show answer
Essential (defining). It tells us which pupils helped — only the ones who finished early — so there are no commas.
Why are there commas in: 'Mrs Fathy, who teaches music, is retiring this year'?
Show answer
The pair of commas shows that 'who teaches music' is extra information about Mrs Fathy. Without it, the sentence still makes sense.
Expand this noun phrase twice: 'a door'.
Show answer
Example: a heavy wooden door (adjectives) → a heavy wooden door at the end of the corridor (+ prepositional phrase).
What is the head noun in 'the noisy crowd of excited fans'?
Show answer
crowd

Practice D: explain the effect (exam style)

Read this short text, then answer the questions.

*Deep beneath the old library, there was a room that nobody remembered. Its walls, which were covered in faded maps, smelt of dust and damp paper. When Ali pushed open the heavy iron door, a cold breath of air rushed past him. He froze.*

Why does the writer begin the first sentence with 'Deep beneath the old library'? [1]
Show answer
It is a fronted adverbial of place. Any one of: it sets the scene before the action / it tells the reader exactly where we are / it creates a mysterious, hidden mood straight away / it makes the reader curious about what is down there.
Find an expanded noun phrase in the third sentence. [1]
Show answer
the heavy iron door (or: a cold breath of air)
Copy the main clause from the third sentence. [1]
Show answer
a cold breath of air rushed past him
Find the relative clause in the second sentence and say what it tells us. [2]
Show answer
'which were covered in faded maps'. It gives extra information about the walls of the room (that they were covered in old maps), which adds detail to the description.
Why does the writer end with the short sentence 'He froze.'? [1]
Show answer
After the longer sentences, the very short sentence stops the reader suddenly, showing Ali's shock and fear and building suspense about what he has found.
Find a relative clause in the first sentence. [1]
Show answer
that nobody remembered

All pages in this course

Start here: the exam

Reading: grammar & punctuation

Reading: understanding texts

Paper 1 writing: non-fiction

Paper 2 writing: fiction