Connectives, Conjunctions and Linking Paragraphs

British & IGCSE › Checkpoint 8 English (Cambridge Lower Secondary 0861)

1. What connectives are and why they matter

Connectives are words and phrases that link ideas: inside a sentence (*because, although, and*), between sentences (*However, As a result*) and between paragraphs (*Despite these problems, ...*). They are the signposts of a text. They tell the reader what kind of idea is coming next and how it relates to the idea before it.

Read these two versions. The facts are the same. Only the second shows how they are connected:

• *The bridge was closed. The villagers walked an extra five kilometres. The council did nothing.*
• *The bridge was closed. As a result, the villagers walked an extra five kilometres. Even so, the council did nothing.*

In Checkpoint, connectives and linking are tested in Section A Reading of both papers (25 marks each) and rewarded in Section B Writing, where Structure of texts (7 marks) includes how well you link sentences and paragraphs.

2. The grammar: four families of connectives

1. Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) join two words, phrases or main clauses of equal importance. They make compound sentences.

2. Subordinating conjunctions begin a subordinate clause, which cannot stand alone. They make complex sentences and show exactly how the ideas are related.

3. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs: *both... and, either... or, neither... nor, not only... but also, whether... or*. Example: *The park is not only cleaner but also safer.* (Adds emphasis to the second point.)

4. Connecting adverbs and linking phrases (also called conjunctive adverbs or adverbials) link sentences and paragraphs: *however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, meanwhile, as a result, in addition, on the other hand, for example, in conclusion*. They are not conjunctions, so they cannot join two main clauses with a comma alone.

3. Connectives by function: the master table

In the exam, you must be able to say what job a connective is doing. Learn this table: it covers every function you are likely to be asked about.

Contrast or concession? Both show a difference, but concession admits something first: *Although the tickets are expensive, the show is worth every pound.* The writer accepts the price problem, then overrides it. Pure contrast simply sets two things side by side: *Cairo is busy, whereas Siwa is peaceful.* If an exam option says *to show contrast* and another says *to introduce a point against what came before*, read the text carefully to choose.

Cause or effect? *Because* introduces the cause; *therefore* and *as a result* introduce the effect. *The village was cut off because the river flooded.* / *The river flooded; therefore, the village was cut off.*

Instead shows that one thing replaces another: *The council did not repair the playground. Instead, it sold the land.* Its purpose is to introduce an alternative (often a surprising or disappointing one).

4. How to answer: 'What is the purpose of this connective?'

1. Read the sentence before and the sentence after the connective. A connective always links two ideas; you need both.
2. Decide the relationship using the master table (addition, contrast, result...).
3. Name the function and say what it connects, quoting briefly.
4. Add the effect if the question has 2 marks: what does this link show the reader about the writer's ideas or the events?

Worked example. *For years, the old lighthouse keeper refused every offer to sell his home. Instead, he gave it to the town as a museum.*

Question: What is the purpose of the word *Instead*? (1 mark)

Answer: It introduces an alternative: it shows that, rather than selling the lighthouse, the keeper chose to give it away to the town.

Worked example (2 marks). *Most visitors come to the coast for the beaches. But the real treasure lies inland, in the quiet villages of the hills.*

Answer: *But* introduces a contrast between what most visitors expect (the beaches) and what the writer believes is better (the inland villages). It turns the reader's attention to the writer's surprising opinion and makes them curious about the villages.

5. How writers link paragraphs: seven devices

A linking question is not only about connectives. A writer can link one paragraph to the next in several ways. Learn all seven, because any of them can be the answer.

Two more structural choices that questions can point to:

• A one-line paragraph (*And then the phone rang.*): it stands out on the page, creates emphasis or a turning point, and often signals a change of direction or a cliffhanger.
• Starting in the middle of a conversation or action: it throws the reader straight into the scene, creates curiosity, and makes the reader read on to understand what is happening.

6. The linking question: a method that works every time

The golden rule: look for the relationship between the ideas, not just for a linking word. A weak answer names the word and stops. A strong answer names the device and explains what it connects.

1. Read the end of the earlier paragraph and the start of the later one. Links are almost always built at the join.
2. Find the link back: which word or phrase points to something earlier (*this, these problems, however, despite this*)? What exactly does it refer to?
3. Find the link forward: what new idea does the sentence introduce that the rest of the paragraph develops?
4. Write it up: *The sentence links back to paragraph X by [device + quote], which refers to [earlier idea]. It links forward by introducing [new idea], which paragraph Y goes on to [describe/explain].*

7. Worked example: an original text

Read this short article. Paragraphs are numbered.

[1] Ten years ago, the roof of the Nour apartment block was a place nobody visited. It was a mess of broken chairs, rusty satellite dishes and dust. Today, it is covered in tomato plants, mint and climbing beans.

[2] The change began with one resident, a retired science teacher, who simply wanted fresh herbs for his kitchen. He planted a few pots of basil. Within a month, his neighbours were asking him for cuttings.

[3] The garden has brought surprising benefits. The plants shade the roof, so the flats below stay noticeably cooler in summer. In addition, families now save money on vegetables, and neighbours who once ignored each other meet every evening to water the beds.

[4] However, the project has not been easy. Every drop of water must be carried up six flights of stairs, and strong winds have twice destroyed the young seedlings.

[5] Despite these difficulties, the residents are determined to continue. Next spring, they plan to install a rainwater tank and to invite pupils from the local school to learn how food is grown.

Question 1: How does the first sentence of paragraph 4 link to paragraph 3? (1 mark)

Answer: It uses the contrast connective *However* to turn from the benefits described in paragraph 3 to the problems of the project, which paragraph 4 goes on to describe.

Question 2: Explain how the first sentence of paragraph 5 links paragraph 4 and paragraph 5. (2 marks)

Answer: It links back to paragraph 4 with the summary phrase *these difficulties*, which refers to the water being carried upstairs and the wind destroying the seedlings. It links forward with *determined to continue*, which introduces the residents' plans for the future that the rest of paragraph 5 describes.

Question 3: How does paragraph 1 use time to structure the opening? (1 mark)

Answer: It contrasts *Ten years ago* with *Today*, showing the reader the roof before and after, so the reader immediately sees how big the change has been.

8. Matching paragraphs to main ideas

This task gives you a list of headings or main ideas and asks you to match each to a paragraph. There is usually one extra option that does not match any paragraph: the distractor.

1. Read each paragraph's first and last sentences first. The topic sentence usually tells you the main idea.
2. Sum up each paragraph in three to five words of your own, in the margin.
3. Match the easy ones first, then work on the harder ones.
4. Beware the distractor: it often uses a word that appears in the text (*money, water, school*) but describes only a small detail, not the main idea of a whole paragraph.
5. Check: one paragraph, one main idea. The main idea must cover the whole paragraph, not one sentence of it.

Worked example using the rooftop article above. Match each paragraph to one main idea. One idea is not used.

9. Using connectives in your own writing

In Section B, connectives earn marks in Structure of texts (linking paragraphs, cohesion) and support Grammar and punctuation (complex sentences). Use them precisely and with variety.

• Open most body paragraphs with a linking phrase that looks back and forward (*Despite these advantages, ... / Another reason why... / Later that evening, ...*).
• Use a range of functions: addition, contrast, concession, cause and effect, example, summary. Not *Firstly, Secondly, Thirdly* only.
• Do not overload: a connective at the start of every sentence sounds mechanical.
• Never use a contrast word between two ideas that agree. *The food was cold. However, the service was slow.* is wrong (both are complaints). Use *Moreover* or *What is more*.
• In stories, use time and place connectives to move the reader smoothly: *Moments later, ... / Meanwhile, back at the house, ... / By the time the sun rose, ...*

10. Practice A: name the function

1. *The beach was crowded. Nevertheless, we found a quiet spot near the rocks.* Function of *Nevertheless*?

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   Contrast / concession: despite the crowd (admitted), they found a quiet spot.

2. *The ferry was cancelled. Consequently, we spent the night in the port.*

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   Effect / result: spending the night is the result of the cancellation.

3. *Some desert animals survive without drinking. The fennec fox, for instance, gets water from its food.*

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   Example: the fox is a specific case proving the general point.

4. *You will not be allowed in unless you show your ticket.*

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   Condition: showing a ticket is the condition for entry.

5. *The mountains are cold at night. Similarly, the desert can freeze after sunset.*

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   Comparison / similarity: both places become cold.

6. *Our club raised money for the hospital. Moreover, we collected two hundred books for the library.*

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   Addition: another achievement in the same direction.

7. *Kareem did not complain about the delay. Instead, he used the time to finish his book.*

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   Alternative / replacement: what he did rather than complaining.

8. *The car was old and rusty, yet it never once broke down.* Function of *yet*?

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   Contrast (a surprising one): we would expect an old, rusty car to break down.

9. *The festival was crowded, noisy and expensive. In short, it was a disappointment.*

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   Summary: it sums up the three complaints in one judgement.

10. *She practised every day so that she would be ready for the final.*

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    Purpose: it explains why she practised.

11. Practice B: linking sentences and paragraphs

1. End of paragraph 1: *...and for centuries the oasis was the busiest stop on the caravan route.* Start of paragraph 2: *Now, only a handful of tourists arrive each week.* How are the paragraphs linked? (2 marks)

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   The time words *for centuries* and *Now* contrast the past with the present, linking the two paragraphs. Paragraph 1 shows the oasis busy and important. Paragraph 2 shows it almost empty, so the reader sees how much it has declined.

2. *The government promised a new hospital in 2020. This promise has still not been kept.* What does *This promise* refer to, and how does it link the sentences?

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   It refers back to the government's promise of a new hospital. The summary phrase repeats the key idea, so the second sentence builds directly on the first and leads into the writer's criticism.

3. End of paragraph 3: *So why does nobody stop him?* Start of paragraph 4: *The answer lies in the town's history.* How does paragraph 4 link to paragraph 3?

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   Paragraph 3 ends with a question and paragraph 4 begins by answering it, so the reader is pulled forward to find the explanation.

4. A story paragraph ends: *She closed the door and finally relaxed.* The next paragraph is one line: *Then the phone rang.* Why is this paragraph only one line long? (2 marks)

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   The single line stands out on the page and breaks the calm mood of the previous paragraph. It creates a sudden turning point and suspense, making the reader want to know who is calling.

5. A text begins: *"Don't open it," whispered Tarek. But it was too late.* Why does the writer begin in the middle of a conversation?

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   It throws the reader straight into a tense moment without explanation, which creates curiosity and makes the reader read on to find out what *it* is and why it should not be opened.

6. End of paragraph 2 describes broken roads, flooding and power cuts. Paragraph 3 begins: *These problems have forced many young families to leave the village.* Explain how this sentence links back and forward. (2 marks)

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   It links back with *These problems*, a summary phrase for the broken roads, flooding and power cuts in paragraph 2. It links forward by introducing a new consequence, families leaving the village, which paragraph 3 goes on to explain.

12. Practice C: choose the right connective

1. *The museum is free; ______, it is rarely crowded.* (however / therefore / for example)

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   however: you would expect a free museum to be crowded, so this is a contrast.

2. *______ the rain, the match went ahead.* (Because / Despite / Unless)

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   Despite shows concession: the rain did not stop the match. (*Because* would mean the rain caused the match.)

3. *Bring a coat ______ it gets cold later.* (in case / although / whereas)

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   in case: a precaution (condition).

4. *The plan was cheap. ______, it was quick to build.* (However / Furthermore / Instead)

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   Furthermore: both are advantages, so this is addition, not contrast.

5. Correct the punctuation: *The road was closed, therefore we took the bus.*

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   *The road was closed; therefore, we took the bus.* or *The road was closed. Therefore, we took the bus.* (*therefore* cannot join two sentences with a comma alone).